Real Python

Python Booleans: Optimize Your Code With Truth Values

2020-10-19T14:00:00+00:00

The Python Boolean type is one of Python’s built-in data types. It’s used to represent the truth value of an expression. For example, the expression 1 <= 2 is True, while the expression 0 == 1 is False. Understanding how Python Boolean values behave is important to programming well in Python.

In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to:

Manipulate Boolean values with Boolean operators
Convert Booleans to other types
Convert other types to Python Booleans
Use Python Booleans to write efficient and readable Python code

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The Python Boolean Type#

The Python Boolean type has only two possible values:

True
False

No other value will have bool as its type. You can check the type of True and False with the built-in type():

>>>

>>> type(False)
<class 'bool'>
>>> type(True)
<class 'bool'>

The type() of both False and True is bool.

The type bool is built in, meaning it’s always available in Python and doesn’t need to be imported. However, the name itself isn’t a keyword in the language. While the following is considered bad style, it’s possible to assign to the name bool:

>>>

>>> bool
<class 'bool'>
>>> bool = "this is not a type"
>>> bool
'this is not a type'

Although technically possible, to avoid confusion it’s highly recommended that you don’t assign a different value to bool.

Python Booleans as Keywords#

Built-in names aren’t keywords. As far as the Python language is concerned, they’re regular variables. If you assign to them, then you’ll override the built-in value.

In contrast, the names True and False are not built-ins. They’re keywords. Unlike many other Python keywords, True and False are Python expressions. Since they’re expressions, they can be used wherever other expressions, like 1 + 1, can be used.

It’s possible to assign a Boolean value to variables, but it’s not possible to assign a value to True:

>>>

>>> a_true_alias = True
>>> a_true_alias
True
>>> True = 5
  File "<stdin>", line 1
SyntaxError: cannot assign to True

Because True is a keyword, you can’t assign a value to it. The same rule applies to False:

>>>

>>> False = 5
  File "<stdin>", line 1
SyntaxError: cannot assign to False

You can’t assign to False because it’s a keyword in Python. In this way, True and False behave like other numeric constants. For example, you can pass 1.5 to functions or assign it to variables. However, it’s impossible to assign a value to 1.5. The statement 1.5 = 5 is not valid Python. Both 1.5 = 5 and False = 5 are invalid Python code and will raise a SyntaxError when parsed.

Python Booleans as Numbers#

Booleans are considered a numeric type in Python. This means they’re numbers for all intents and purposes. In other words, you can apply arithmetic operations to Booleans, and you can also compare them to numbers:

>>>

>>> True == 1
True
>>> False == 0
True
>>> True + (False / True)
1.0

There aren’t many uses for the numerical nature of Boolean values, but there’s one technique you may find helpful. Because True is equal to 1 and False is equal to 0, adding Booleans together is a quick way to count the number of True values. This can come in handy when you need to count the number of items that satisfy a condition.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-boolean/ »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #31: Python Return Statement Best Practices and Working With the map() Function

2020-10-16T12:00:00+00:00

The Python return statement is such a fundamental part of writing functions. Is it possible you missed some best practices when writing your own return statements? This week on the show, David Amos returns with another batch of PyCoder’s Weekly articles and projects. We also talk functional programming again with an article on the Python map function and processing iterables without a loop.

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Data Management With Python, SQLite, and SQLAlchemy

2020-10-14T14:00:00+00:00

All programs process data in one form or another, and many need to be able to save and retrieve that data from one invocation to the next. Python, SQLite, and SQLAlchemy give your programs database functionality, allowing you to store data in a single file without the need for a database server.

You can achieve similar results using flat files in any number of formats, including CSV, JSON, XML, and even custom formats. Flat files are often human-readable text files—though they can also be binary data—with a structure that can be parsed by a computer program. Below, you’ll explore using SQL databases and flat files for data storage and manipulation and learn how to decide which approach is right for your program.

In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to use:

Flat files for data storage
SQL to improve access to persistent data
SQLite for data storage
SQLAlchemy to work with data as Python objects

You can get all of the code and data you’ll see in this tutorial by clicking on the link below:

Download the sample code: Click here to get the code you'll use to learn about data management with SQLite and SQLAlchemy in this tutorial.

Using Flat Files for Data Storage#

A flat file is a file containing data with no internal hierarchy and usually no references to external files. Flat files contain human-readable characters and are very useful for creating and reading data. Because they don’t have to use fixed field widths, flat files often use other structures to make it possible for a program to parse text.

For example, comma-separated value (CSV) files are lines of plain text in which the comma character separates the data elements. Each line of text represents a row of data, and each comma-separated value is a field within that row. The comma character delimiter indicates the boundary between data values.

Python excels at reading from and saving to files. Being able to read data files with Python allows you to restore an application to a useful state when you rerun it at a later time. Being able to save data in a file allows you to share information from the program between users and sites where the application runs.

Before a program can read a data file, it has to be able to understand the data. Usually, this means the data file needs to have some structure that the application can use to read and parse the text in the file.

Below is a CSV file named author_book_publisher.csv, used by the first example program in this tutorial:

first_name,last_name,title,publisher
Isaac,Asimov,Foundation,Random House
Pearl,Buck,The Good Earth,Random House
Pearl,Buck,The Good Earth,Simon & Schuster
Tom,Clancy,The Hunt For Red October,Berkley
Tom,Clancy,Patriot Games,Simon & Schuster
Stephen,King,It,Random House
Stephen,King,It,Penguin Random House
Stephen,King,Dead Zone,Random House
Stephen,King,The Shining,Penguin Random House
John,Le Carre,"Tinker, Tailor, Solider, Spy: A George Smiley Novel",Berkley
Alex,Michaelides,The Silent Patient,Simon & Schuster
Carol,Shaben,Into The Abyss,Simon & Schuster

The first line provides a comma-separated list of fields, which are the column names for the data that follows in the remaining lines. The rest of the lines contain the data, with each line representing a single record.

Note: Though the authors, books, and publishers are all real, the relationships between books and publishers are fictional and were created for the purposes of this tutorial.

Next, you’ll take a look at some of the advantages and disadvantages of using flat files like the above CSV to work with your data.

Advantages of Flat Files#

Working with data in flat files is manageable and straightforward to implement. Having the data in a human-readable format is helpful not only for creating the data file with a text editor but also for examining the data and looking for any inconsistencies or problems.

Many applications can export flat-file versions of the data generated by the file. For example, Excel can import or export a CSV file to and from a spreadsheet. Flat files also have the advantage of being self-contained and transferable if you want to share the data.

Almost every programming language has tools and libraries that make working with CSV files easier. Python has the built-in csv module and the powerful pandas module available, making working with CSV files a potent solution.

Disadvantages of Flat Files#

The advantages of working with flat files start to diminish as the data becomes larger. Large files are still human-readable, but editing them to create data or look for problems becomes a more difficult task. If your application will change the data in the file, then one solution would be to read the entire file into memory, make the changes, and write the data out to another file.

Another problem with using flat files is that you’ll need to explicitly create and maintain any relationships between parts of your data and the application program within the file syntax. Additionally, you’ll need to generate code in your application to use those relationships.

A final complication is that people you want to share your data file with will also need to know about and act on the structures and relationships you’ve created in the data. To access the information, those users will need to understand not only the structure of the data but also the programming tools necessary for accessing it.

Flat File Example#

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-sqlite-sqlalchemy/ »

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Web Scraping With Beautiful Soup and Python

2020-10-13T14:00:00+00:00

The incredible amount of data on the Internet is a rich resource for any field of research or personal interest. To effectively harvest that data, you’ll need to become skilled at web scraping. The Python libraries requests and Beautiful Soup are powerful tools for the job. If you like to learn with hands-on examples and you have a basic understanding of Python and HTML, then this course is for you.

In this course, you’ll learn how to:

Use requests and Beautiful Soup for scraping and parsing data from the Web
Walk through a web scraping pipeline from start to finish
Build a script that fetches job offers from the Web and displays relevant information in your console

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Using ggplot in Python: Visualizing Data With plotnine

2020-10-12T14:00:00+00:00

In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to use ggplot in Python to create data visualizations using a grammar of graphics. A grammar of graphics is a high-level tool that allows you to create data plots in an efficient and consistent way. It abstracts most low-level details, letting you focus on creating meaningful and beautiful visualizations for your data.

There are several Python packages that provide a grammar of graphics. This tutorial focuses on plotnine since it’s one of the most mature ones. plotnine is based on ggplot2 from the R programming language, so if you have a background in R, then you can consider plotnine as the equivalent of ggplot2 in Python.

In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to:

Install plotnine and Jupyter Notebook
Combine the different elements of the grammar of graphics
Use plotnine to create visualizations in an efficient and consistent way
Export your data visualizations to files

This tutorial assumes that you already have some experience in Python and at least some knowledge of Jupyter Notebook and pandas. To get up to speed on these topics, check out Jupyter Notebook: An Introduction and Using Pandas and Python to Explore Your Dataset.

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Setting Up Your Environment#

In this section, you’ll learn how to set up your environment. You’ll cover the following topics:

Creating a virtual environment
Installing plotnine
Installing Juptyer Notebook

Virtual environments enable you to install packages in isolated environments. They’re very useful when you want to try some packages or projects without messing with your system-wide installation. You can learn more about them in Python Virtual Environments: A Primer.

Run the following commands to create a directory named data-visualization and a virtual environment inside it:

$ mkdir data-visualization
$ cd data-visualization
$ python3 -m venv venv

After running the above commands, you’ll find your virtual environment inside the data-visualization directory. Run the following command to activate the virtual environment and start using it:

$ source ./venv/bin/activate

When you activate a virtual environment, any package that you install will be installed inside the environment without affecting your system-wide installation.

Next, you’ll install plotnine inside the virtual environment using the pip package installer.

Install plotnine by running this command:

$ pip install plotnine

Executing the above command makes the plotnine package available in your virtual environment.

Finally, you’ll install Jupyter Notebook. While this isn’t strictly necessary for using plotnine, you’ll find Jupyter Notebook really useful when working with data and building visualizations. If you’ve never used the program before, then you can learn more about it in Jupyter Notebook: An Introduction.

To install Jupyter Notebook, use the following command:

$ pip install jupyter

Congratulations, you now have a virtual environment with plotnine and Jupyter Notebook installed! With this setup, you’ll be able to run all the code samples presented through this tutorial.

Building Your First Plot With `ggplot` and Python#

In this section, you’ll learn how to build your first data visualization using ggplot in Python. You’ll also learn how to inspect and use the example datasets included with plotnine.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/ggplot-python/ »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #30: Exploring the New Features of Python 3.9

2020-10-09T12:00:00+00:00

Python 3.9 has arrived! This week on the show, former guest and Real Python author Geir Arne Hjelle returns to talk about his recent article, "Python 3.9: Cool New Features for You to Try". Also joining the conversation is Real Python video course instructor and author Christopher Trudeau. Christopher has created a video course, which was released this week also, based on Geir Arne's article. We talk about time zones, merging dictionaries, the new parser, type hints, and more.

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Python Community Interview With Anthony Shaw

2020-10-07T14:00:00+00:00

Today I’m joined by Anthony Shaw, global senior vice president for talent transformation and innovation at NTT Ltd. Anthony is also a Real Python tutorial author and has written a new book titled CPython Internals.

In this interview, we discuss a variety of topics, including Python security, advice for beginner developers, and his love for the beach. So without further ado, let’s welcome Anthony.

Ricky: Thanks for joining me, Anthony. I’m glad you could join me for this interview. I’d like to start in the same manner we do with all our guests: how did you get into programming, and when did you start using Python?

Anthony: Hey, Ricky. Thanks for the opportunity to speak to the Real Python readers!

I got into programming in the early ’90s, learning how to write code for devices that were little more than programmable calculators. As a teen, I spent most of my income from a paper round on programming books and computer hardware.

I’m mostly self-taught, starting on some older BASIC-type languages and moving on to OOP languages like C++ and C#. I’d been working with C# .NET for about eight years and discovered Python while contributing to an open source project that needed support for an API I worked on at work.

I learned the basics of Python over a long weekend in 2010 and fell for the language’s flexibility in working with fluid data structures and natural way of using both object-oriented programming and procedural programming.

Ricky: You seem to have gained an interest in Python security lately, having written a PyCharm security plugin and a cross-site scripting library for Django. You even made a video on SQL injection. How are you finding your foray into infosec, and is this a permanent change of focus for you in your career?

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/interview-anthony-shaw/ »

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Cool New Features in Python 3.9

2020-10-06T14:00:00+00:00

Python 3.9 is here! Volunteers from all over the world have been working on improvements to Python for the past year. While beta versions have been available for some time, the first official version of Python 3.9 was released on October 5, 2020.

Every release of Python includes new, improved, and deprecated features, and Python 3.9 is no different. The documentation gives a complete list of the changes. Below, you’ll take an in-depth look at the coolest features that the latest version of Python brings to the table.

In this course, you’ll learn about:

Accessing and calculating with time zones
Merging and updating dictionaries effectively
Using decorators based on expressions
Combining type hints and other annotations

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Python 3.9: Cool New Features for You to Try

2020-10-05T17:18:24+00:00

In this tutorial, you’ll learn about:

Accessing and calculating with time zones
Merging and updating dictionaries effectively
Using decorators based on expressions
Combining type hints and other annotations

To try out the new features yourself, you need to have Python 3.9 installed. You can download and install it from the Python home page. Alternatively, you can try it out using the official Docker image. See Run Python Versions in Docker: How to Try the Latest Python Release for more details.

Free Bonus: Click here to get access to a free "The Power of Python Decorators" guide that shows you 3 advanced decorator patterns and techniques you can use to write to cleaner and more Pythonic programs.

Proper Time Zone Support#

Python has extensive support for working with dates and times through the datetime module in the standard library. However, support for working with time zones has been somewhat lacking. Until now, the recommended way of working with time zones has been to use third-party libraries like dateutil.

The biggest challenge to working with time zones in plain Python has been that you’ve had to implement time zones rules yourself. A datetime supports setting time zones, but only UTC is immediately available. Other time zones need to be implemented on top of the abstract tzinfo base class.

Accessing Time Zones#

You can get a UTC time stamp from the datetime library like this:

>>>

>>> from datetime import datetime, timezone

>>> datetime.now(tz=timezone.utc)
datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 8, 15, 4, 15, 361413, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

Note that the resulting time stamp is time zone aware. It has an attached time zone as specified by tzinfo. Time stamps without any time zone information are called naive.

Paul Ganssle has been the maintainer of dateutil for years. He joined the Python core developers in 2019 and helped add a new zoneinfo standard library that makes working with time zones much more convenient.

zoneinfo provides access to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) Time Zone Database. The IANA updates its database several times each year, and it’s the most authoritative source for time zone information.

Using zoneinfo, you can get an object describing any time zone in the database:

>>>

>>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
>>> ZoneInfo("America/Vancouver")
zoneinfo.ZoneInfo(key='America/Vancouver')

You access a time zone using one of several keys. In this case, you use "America/Vancouver".

Note: zoneinfo uses an IANA time zone database residing on your local computer. It’s possible—on Windows in particular—that you don’t have any such database or that zoneinfo won’t be able to locate it. If you get an error like the following, then zoneinfo hasn’t been able to locate a time zone database:

>>>

>>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
>>> ZoneInfo("America/Vancouver")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 'No time zone found with key America/Vancouver'

A Python implementation of the IANA Time Zone Database is available on PyPI as tzdata. You can install it with pip:

$ python -m pip install tzdata

Once tzdata is installed, zoneinfo should be able to read information about all supported time zones. tzdata is maintained by the Python core team. Note that you need to keep the package updated in order to have access to the latest changes in the IANA Time Zone Database.

You can make time zone–aware time stamps using the tz or tzinfo arguments to datetime functions:

>>>

>>> from datetime import datetime
>>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
>>> datetime.now(tz=ZoneInfo("Europe/Oslo"))
datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 8, 17, 12, 0, 939001,
                  tzinfo=zoneinfo.ZoneInfo(key='Europe/Oslo'))

>>> datetime(2020, 10, 5, 3, 9, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Vancouver"))
datetime.datetime(2020, 10, 5, 3, 9,
                  tzinfo=zoneinfo.ZoneInfo(key='America/Vancouver'))

Having the time zone recorded with the time stamp is great for record keeping. It also makes it convenient to convert between time zones:

>>>

>>> from datetime import datetime
>>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
>>> release = datetime(2020, 10, 5, 3, 9, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Vancouver"))
>>> release.astimezone(ZoneInfo("Europe/Oslo"))
datetime.datetime(2020, 10, 5, 12, 9,
                  tzinfo=zoneinfo.ZoneInfo(key='Europe/Oslo'))

Note that the time in Oslo is nine hours later than in Vancouver.

Investigating Time Zones#

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python39-new-features/ »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #29: Resolving Package Dependencies With the New Version of Pip

2020-10-02T12:00:00+00:00

If you use Python, then you probably have used pip to install additional packages from the Python package index. Part of the magic behind pip is the dependency resolver, and there is a new version of it in the latest version of pip. This week on the show, we have Sumana Harihareswara and Georgia Bullen, who have been working on the recent releases of pip. Sumana is the project manager for pip, and Georgia has been working on pip's user experience (UX).

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Python's map(): Processing Iterables Without a Loop

2020-09-30T14:00:00+00:00

Python’s map() is a built-in function that allows you to process and transform all the items in an iterable without using an explicit for loop, a technique commonly known as mapping. map() is useful when you need to apply a transformation function to each item in an iterable and transform them into a new iterable. map() is one of the tools that support a functional programming style in Python.

In this tutorial, you’ll learn:

How Python’s map() works
How to transform different types of Python iterables using map()
How to combine map() with other functional tools to perform more complex transformations
What tools you can use to replace map() and make your code more Pythonic

With this knowledge, you’ll be able to use map() effectively in your programs or, alternatively, to use list comprehensions or generator expressions to make your code more Pythonic and readable.

For a better understanding of map(), some previous knowledge of how to work with iterables, for loops, functions, and lambda functions would be helpful.

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Coding With Functional Style in Python#

In functional programming, computations are done by combining functions that take arguments and return a concrete value (or values) as a result. These functions don’t modify their input arguments and don’t change the program’s state. They just provide the result of a given computation. These kinds of functions are commonly known as pure functions.

In theory, programs that are built using a functional style will be easier to:

Develop because you can code and use every function in isolation
Debug and test because you can test and debug individual functions without looking at the rest of the program
Understand because you don’t need to deal with state changes throughout the program

Functional programming typically uses lists, arrays, and other iterables to represent the data along with a set of functions that operate on that data and transform it. When it comes to processing data with a functional style, there are at least three commonly used techniques:

Mapping consists of applying a transformation function to an iterable to produce a new iterable. Items in the new iterable are produced by calling the transformation function on each item in the original iterable.
Filtering consists of applying a predicate or Boolean-valued function to an iterable to generate a new iterable. Items in the new iterable are produced by filtering out any items in the original iterable that make the predicate function return false.
Reducing consists of applying a reduction function to an iterable to produce a single cumulative value.

According to Guido van Rossum, Python is more strongly influenced by imperative programming languages than functional languages:

I have never considered Python to be heavily influenced by functional languages, no matter what people say or think. I was much more familiar with imperative languages such as C and Algol 68 and although I had made functions first-class objects, I didn’t view Python as a functional programming language. (Source)

However, back in 1993, the Python community was demanding some functional programming features. They were asking for:

Anonymous functions
A map() function
A filter() function
A reduce() function

These functional features were added to the language thanks to the contribution of a community member. Nowadays, map(), filter(), and reduce() are fundamental components of the functional programming style in Python.

In this tutorial, you’ll cover one of these functional features, the built-in function map(). You’ll also learn how to use list comprehensions and generator expressions to get the same functionality of map() in a Pythonic and readable way.

Getting Started With Python’s `map()`#

Sometimes you might face situations in which you need to perform the same operation on all the items of an input iterable to build a new iterable. The quickest and most common approach to this problem is to use a Python for loop. However, you can also tackle this problem without an explicit loop by using map().

In the following three sections, you’ll learn how map() works and how you can use it to process and transform iterables without a loop.

Understanding `map()`#

map() loops over the items of an input iterable (or iterables) and returns an iterator that results from applying a transformation function to every item in the original input iterable.

According to the documentation, map() takes a function object and an iterable (or multiple iterables) as arguments and returns an iterator that yields transformed items on demand. The function’s signature is defined as follows:

map(function, iterable[, iterable1, iterable2,..., iterableN])

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-map-function/ »

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Using Google Login With Flask

2020-09-29T14:00:00+00:00

In this course, you’ll work through the creation of a Flask web application. Your application will allow a user to log in using their Google identity instead of creating a new account. There are tons of benefits with this method of user management. It’s going to be safer and simpler than managing the traditional username and password combinations.

By the end of this course, you’ll be able to:

Create a Flask web application that lets users log in with Google
Create client credentials to interact with Google
Use Flask-Login for user session management in a Flask application
Better understand OAuth 2 and OpenID Connect (OIDC)

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The Python return Statement: Usage and Best Practices

2020-09-28T14:00:00+00:00

The Python return statement is a key component of functions and methods. You can use the return statement to make your functions send Python objects back to the caller code. These objects are known as the function’s return value. You can use them to perform further computation in your programs.

Using the return statement effectively is a core skill if you want to code custom functions that are Pythonic and robust.

In this tutorial, you’ll learn:

How to use the Python return statement in your functions
How to return single or multiple values from your functions
What best practices to observe when using return statements

With this knowledge, you’ll be able to write more readable, maintainable, and concise functions in Python. If you’re totally new to Python functions, then you can check out Defining Your Own Python Function before diving into this tutorial.

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Getting Started With Python Functions#

Most programming languages allow you to assign a name to a code block that performs a concrete computation. These named code blocks can be reused quickly because you can use their name to call them from different places in your code.

Programmers call these named code blocks subroutines, routines, procedures, or functions depending on the language they use. In some languages, there’s a clear difference between a routine or procedure and a function.

Sometimes that difference is so strong that you need to use a specific keyword to define a procedure or subroutine and another keyword to define a function. For example the Visual Basic programming language uses Sub and Function to differentiate between the two.

In general, a procedure is a named code block that performs a set of actions without computing a final value or result. On the other hand, a function is a named code block that performs some actions with the purpose of computing a final value or result, which is then sent back to the caller code. Both procedures and functions can act upon a set of input values, commonly known as arguments.

In Python, these kinds of named code blocks are known as functions because they always send a value back to the caller. The Python documentation defines a function as follows:

A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also be passed zero or more arguments which may be used in the execution of the body. (Source)

Even though the official documentation states that a function “returns some value to the caller,” you’ll soon see that functions can return any Python object to the caller code.

In general, a function takes arguments (if any), performs some operations, and returns a value (or object). The value that a function returns to the caller is generally known as the function’s return value. All Python functions have a return value, either explicit or implicit. You’ll cover the difference between explicit and implicit return values later in this tutorial.

To write a Python function, you need a header that starts with the def keyword, followed by the name of the function, an optional list of comma-separated arguments inside a required pair of parentheses, and a final colon.

The second component of a function is its code block, or body. Python defines code blocks using indentation instead of brackets, begin and end keywords, and so on. So, to define a function in Python you can use the following syntax:

def function_name(arg1, arg2,..., argN):
    # Function's code goes here...
    pass

When you’re coding a Python function, you need to define a header with the def keyword, the name of the function, and a list of arguments in parentheses. Note that the list of arguments is optional, but the parentheses are syntactically required. Then you need to define the function’s code block, which will begin one level of indentation to the right.

In the above example, you use a pass statement. This kind of statement is useful when you need a placeholder statement in your code to make it syntactically correct, but you don’t need to perform any action. pass statements are also known as the null operation because they don’t perform any action.

Note: The full syntax to define functions and their arguments is beyond the scope of this tutorial. For an in-depth resource on this topic, check out Defining Your Own Python Function.

To use a function, you need to call it. A function call consists of the function’s name followed by the function’s arguments in parentheses:

function_name(arg1, arg2, ..., argN)

You’ll need to pass arguments to a function call only if the function requires them. The parentheses, on the other hand, are always required in a function call. If you forget them, then you won’t be calling the function but referencing it as a function object.

To make your functions return a value, you need to use the Python return statement. That’s what you’ll cover from this point on.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-return-statement/ »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #28: Using Pylance to Write Better Python Inside of Visual Studio Code

2020-09-25T12:00:00+00:00

A big decision a developer has to make is what tool to use to write code? Would you like an editor that understands Python, and is there to help with suggestions, definitions, and analysis of your code? For many developers, its the free tool, Visual Studio Code. This week on the show, we have Savannah Ostrowski, program manager for the Python Language Server and Python in Visual Studio. We discuss Pylance, a new language server with fast, feature-rich language support for Python in VS Code.

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Python Community Interview With David Amos

2020-09-23T14:00:00+00:00

This week I’m joined by David Amos, the content technical lead here at Real Python.

In this interview, we talk about David’s love of LEGO and mathematics. We also talk about the Python Basics book, which is soon to be out of early access, and his involvement with PyCoder’s Weekly. So, without further ado, let’s get started.

Ricky: Thank you for joining me, David. Many of our readers and members may already know your background, but for those who don’t, let’s ask the inevitable questions: How did you get into programming, and when did you start using Python?

David: I discovered programming by accident when I came across the source code for the Gorillas game on my parents’ IBM 386 PS/2 computer. I guess I was about seven or eight years old. I found something called a .BAS file that opened up a program called QBasic and had all sorts of strange-looking text in it. I was instantly intrigued!

There was a note at the top of the file that explained how to adjust the game speed. I changed the value and ran the game. The effect was instantly noticeable. It was a thrilling experience.

I was obsessed with learning to program in QBasic. I made my own text adventure games. I even made a few animations using simple geometric shapes. It was tons of fun!

QBasic was a fantastic language for an eight-year-old kid to learn. It was challenging enough to keep me interested but easy enough to get quick results, which is really important for a child.

When I was around ten years old, I tried to teach myself C++. The ideas were too complex, and results came too slowly. After a few months of struggling, I stopped. But the idea of programming computers remained attractive to me—enough so that I took a web technology class in high school and learned the basics of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.

In college, I decided to major in mathematics, but I needed a minor. I chose computer science because I thought having some experience with programming would make it easier to complete the degree requirements.

I learned about data structures with C++. I took an object-oriented programming class with Java. I studied operating systems and parallel computing with C. My programming horizons expanded vastly, and I found the whole subject pleasing both practically and intellectually.

At that time, I viewed programming as a tool to help me with mathematics research. In graduate school, I wrote programs to generate examples and test ideas for my research projects.

It was during graduate school, around 2013, that I found Python and pretty much instantly fell in love. I’d been using C++, MATLAB, and Mathematica as my primary research tools, but Python allowed me to focus on the research problem without getting caught up in the code.

And with Python’s awesome ecosystem of tools for scientific computing, like NumPy, SciPy, PuLP, and NetworkX, I had everything I needed to tackle problems like I would with MATLAB but in a much more expressive manner!

Ricky: You often hear the myth that a strong mathematics background is a prerequisite to be a programmer. While I think you’ll agree that it’s not always necessary for programmers to know advanced math, I’m curious to know how your math and data science background has helped you when writing code.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/interview-david-amos/ »

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Working With Linked Lists in Python

2020-09-22T14:00:00+00:00

Linked lists are like a lesser-known cousin of lists. They’re not as popular or as cool, and you might not even remember them from your algorithms class. But in the right context, they can really shine. If you’re looking to brush up on your coding skills for a job interview, or if you want to learn more about Python data structures besides the usual dictionaries and lists, then you’ve come to the right place!

In this course, you’ll learn:

What linked lists are and when you should use them
How to use collections.deque for all of your linked list needs
How to implement your own linked lists
What the other types of linked lists are and what they can be used for

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Python Practice Problems: Get Ready for Your Next Interview

2020-09-21T14:00:00+00:00

Are you a Python developer brushing up on your skills before an interview? If so, then this tutorial will usher you through a series of Python practice problems meant to simulate common coding test scenarios. After you develop your own solutions, you’ll walk through the Real Python team’s answers so you can optimize your code, impress your interviewer, and land your dream job!

In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to:

Write code for interview-style problems
Discuss your solutions during the interview
Work through frequently overlooked details
Talk about design decisions and trade-offs

This tutorial is aimed at intermediate Python developers. It assumes a basic knowledge of Python and an ability to solve problems in Python. You can get skeleton code with failing unit tests for each of the problems you’ll see in this tutorial by clicking on the link below:

Download the sample code: Click here to get the code you'll use to work through the Python practice problems in this tutorial.

Each of the problems below shows the file header from this skeleton code describing the problem requirements. So download the code, fire up your favorite editor, and let’s dive into some Python practice problems!

Python Practice Problem 1: Sum of a Range of Integers#

Let’s start with a warm-up question. In the first practice problem, you’ll write code to sum a list of integers. Each practice problem includes a problem description. This description is pulled directly from the skeleton files in the repo to make it easier to remember while you’re working on your solution.

You’ll see a solution section for each problem as well. Most of the discussion will be in a collapsed section below that. Clone that repo if you haven’t already, work out a solution to the following problem, then expand the solution box to review your work.

Problem Description#

Here’s your first problem:

# integersums.py
""" Sum of Integers Up To n
    Write a function, add_it_up(), that takes a single integer as input
    and returns the sum of the integers from zero to the input parameter.

    The function should return 0 if a non-integer is passed in.
"""

Remember to run the unit tests until you get them passing!

Problem Solution#

Here’s some discussion of a couple of possible solutions.

Note: Remember, don’t open the collapsed section below until you’re ready to look at the answer for this Python practice problem!

How did writing the solution go? Ready to look at the answer?

For this problem, you’ll look at a few different solutions. The first of these is not so good:

# integersums.py
def first(n):
    num = 1
    sum = 0
    while num < n + 1:
        sum = sum + num
        num = num + 1
    return sum

In this solution, you manually build a while loop to run through the numbers 1 through n. You keep a running sum and then return it when you’ve finished the loop.

This solution works, but it has two problems:

It doesn’t display your knowledge of Python and how the language simplifies tasks like this.
It doesn’t meet the error conditions in the problem description. Passing in a string will result in the function throwing an exception when it should just return 0.

You’ll deal with the error conditions in the final answer below, but first let’s refine the core solution to be a bit more Pythonic.

The first thing to think about is that while loop. Python has powerful mechanisms for iterating over lists and ranges. Creating your own is usually unnecessary, and that’s certainly the case here. You can replace the while loop with a loop that iterates over a range():

# integersums.py
def better(n):
    sum = 0
    for num in range(n + 1):
        sum += num
    return sum

You can see that the for...range() construct has replaced your while loop and shortened the code. One thing to note is that range() goes up to but does not include the number given, so you need to use n + 1 here.

This was a nice step! It removes some of the boilerplate code of looping over a range and makes your intention clearer. But there’s still more you can do here.

Summing a list of integers is another thing Python is good at:

# integersums.py
def even_better(n):
    return sum(range(n + 1))

Wow! By using the built-in sum(), you got this down to one line of code! While code golf generally doesn’t produce the most readable code, in this case you have a win-win: shorter and more readable code.

There’s one problem remaining, however. This code still doesn’t handle the error conditions correctly. To fix that, you can wrap your previous code in a try...except block:

# integersums.py
def add_it_up(n):
    try:
        result = sum(range(n + 1))
    except TypeError:
        result = 0
    return result

This solves the problem and handles the error conditions correctly. Way to go!

Occasionally, interviewers will ask this question with a fixed limit, something like “Print the sum of the first nine integers.” When the problem is phrased that way, one correct solution would be print(45).

If you give this answer, however, then you should follow up with code that solves the problem step by step. The trick answer is a good place to start your answer, but it’s not a great place to end.

If you’d like to extend this problem, try adding an optional lower limit to add_it_up() to give it more flexibility!

Python Practice Problem 2: Caesar Cipher#

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-practice-problems/ »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #27: Preparing for an Interview With Python Practice Problems

2020-09-18T12:00:00+00:00

What is an effective way to prepare for a Python interview? Would you like a set of problems that increase in difficulty to practice and hone your Python skills? This week on the show, we have Jim Anderson to talk about his new Real Python article, "Python Practice Problems: Get Ready for Your Next Interview." This article provides several problems, which include skeleton code, unit tests, and solutions for you to compare your work.

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Numbers in Python

2020-09-16T14:00:00+00:00

You don’t need to be a math whiz to program well. The truth is, few programmers need to know more than basic algebra. Of course, how much math you need to know depends on the application you’re working on. In general, the level of math required to be a programmer is lower than you might expect. Although math and computer programming aren’t as correlated as some people might believe, numbers are an integral part of any programming language, and Python is no exception.

In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to:

Create integers and floating-point numbers
Round numbers to a given number of decimal places
Format and display numbers in strings

Let’s get started!

Note: This tutorial is adapted from the chapter “Numbers and Math” in Python Basics: A Practical Introduction to Python 3.

The book uses Python’s built-in IDLE editor to create and edit Python files and interact with the Python shell, so you will see references to IDLE’s built-in debugging tools throughout this tutorial. However, you should have no problems running the example code from the editor and environment of your choice.

Free Bonus: 5 Thoughts On Python Mastery, a free course for Python developers that shows you the roadmap and the mindset you'll need to take your Python skills to the next level.

Integers and Floating-Point Numbers#

Python has three built-in numeric data types: integers, floating-point numbers, and complex numbers. In this section, you’ll learn about integers and floating-point numbers, which are the two most commonly used number types. You’ll learn about complex numbers in a later section.

Integers#

An integer is a whole number with no decimal places. For example, 1 is an integer, but 1.0 isn’t. The name for the integer data type is int, which you can see with type():

>>>

>>> type(1)
<class 'int'>

You can create an integer by typing the desired number. For instance, the following assigns the integer 25 to the variable num:

>>>

>>> num = 25

When you create an integer like this, the value 25 is called an integer literal because the integer is literally typed into the code.

You may already be familiar with how to convert a string containing an integer to a number using int(). For example, the following converts the string "25" to the integer 25:

>>>

>>> int("25")
25

int("25") is not an integer literal because the integer value is created from a string.

When you write large numbers by hand, you typically group digits into groups of three separated by a comma or a decimal point. The number 1,000,000 is a lot easier to read than 1000000.

In Python, you can’t use commas to group digits in integer literals, but you can use underscores (_). Both of the following are valid ways to represent the number one million as an integer literal:

>>>

>>> 1000000
1000000

>>> 1_000_000
1000000

There’s no limit to how large an integer can be, which might be surprising considering that computers have a finite amount of memory. Try typing the largest number you can think of into IDLE’s interactive window. Python can handle it with no problem!

Floating-Point Numbers#

A floating-point number, or float for short, is a number with a decimal place. 1.0 is a floating-point number, as is -2.75. The name of the floating-point data type is float:

>>>

>>> type(1.0)
<class 'float'>

Like integers, floats can be created from floating-point literals or by converting a string to a float with float():

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-numbers/ »

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Command Line Interfaces in Python

2020-09-15T14:00:00+00:00

Adding the capability of processing Python command line arguments provides a user-friendly interface to your text-based command line program. It’s similar to what a graphical user interface is for a visual application that’s manipulated by graphical elements or widgets.

Python exposes a mechanism to capture and extract your Python command line arguments. These values can be used to modify the behavior of a program. For example, if your program processes data read from a file, then you can pass the name of the file to your program, rather than hard-coding the value in your source code.

By the end of this course, you’ll know:

The origins of Python command line arguments
The underlying support for Python command line arguments
The standards guiding the design of a command line interface
The basics to manually customize and handle Python command line arguments
The libraries available in Python to ease the development of a complex command line interface

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #26: 5 Years Podcasting Python with Michael Kennedy: Growth, GIL, Async, and More

2020-09-11T12:00:00+00:00

Why is Python pulling in so many new programmers? Maybe some of that growth is from Python being a full-spectrum language. This week on the show we have Michael Kennedy, the host of the podcast "Talk Python to Me". Michael reflects on five years of podcasting about Python, and many of the changes he has seen in the Python landscape.

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Exploring HTTPS and Cryptography in Python

2020-09-08T14:00:00+00:00

Have you ever wondered why it’s okay for you to send your credit card information over the Internet? You may have noticed the https:// on URLs in your browser, but what is it, and how does it keep your information safe? Or perhaps you want to create a Python HTTPS application, but you’re not exactly sure what that means.

In this course, you’ll get a working knowledge of the various factors that combine to keep communications over the Internet safe. You’ll see concrete examples of how a Python HTTPS application keeps information secure.

In this course, you’ll learn how to:

Monitor and analyze network traffic
Apply cryptography to keep data safe
Describe the core concepts of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Create your own Certificate Authority
Build a Python HTTPS application
Identify common Python HTTPS warnings and errors

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #25: Data Version Control in Python and Real Python Video Transcripts

2020-09-04T12:00:00+00:00

Wouldn't it be nice to a use a form of version control for data? Something that would allow you to track and version your datasets and models. Well, that's what the tool called DVC is designed to do. This week on the show, David Amos is here and he's brought another batch of PyCoder’s Weekly articles and projects.

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Editing Excel Spreadsheets in Python With openpyxl

2020-09-01T14:00:00+00:00

Excel spreadsheets are one of those things you might have to deal with at some point. Either it’s because your boss loves them or because marketing needs them, you might have to learn how to work with spreadsheets in Python, and that’s when knowing openpyxl comes in handy!

In this course, you’ll learn how to use openpyxl to:

Read Excel spreadsheets and iterate through the data
Manipulate speadsheet data using Python data structures
Create simple or more complex spreadsheets
Format workbooks using styles, filters, and conditional formatting
Enhance spreadsheets by adding images and charts

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #24: Options for Packaging Your Python Application: Wheels, Docker, and More

2020-08-28T12:00:00+00:00

Have you wondered, how should I package my Python code? You've written the application, but now you need to distribute it to the machines it's intended to run on. It depends on what the code is, the libraries it depends on, and with whom do you want to share it. This week on the show we have Itamar Turner-Trauring, creator of the website pythonspeed.com. We discuss his article "Options for Packaging Your Python Code: Wheels, Conda, Docker, and More," covering the how of sharing your code.

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Django Redirects

2020-08-25T14:00:00+00:00

When you build web applications in Python using the Django framework, you’ll likely need to redirect the user from one URL to another. This course covers what you need to know about redirecting in Django. All the way from the low-level details of the HTTP protocol to the high-level way of dealing with them in Django.

By the end of this course you’ll learn:

How HTTP Redirects work
The difference between temporary and permanent redirects
How to use query strings with a redirect
How to avoid common problems

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #23: Python Wheels and Pass by Reference in Python

2020-08-21T12:00:00+00:00

Have you wondered what are Python wheels? How are they used to package Python code? Does Python use pass by value or pass by reference? This week on the show, David Amos is here to help answer these questions, and he has brought another batch of PyCoder’s Weekly articles and projects.

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Real Python Office Hours

2020-08-18T14:00:00+00:00

The Real Python Office Hours is a weekly hangout where members of Real Python get the chance to meet fellow Pythonistas to chat about your learning progress, ask questions, and discuss Python tips & tricks via screen sharing.

In this video course, you can:

View previous office hours meetings
Download the chat transcript from each meeting
Explore resources and bonus materials discussed during each meeting

Office Hours Schedule & Registration: Join us live for the next members-only Q&A session with the Real Python Team: View upcoming Office Hours events »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #22: Create Cross-Platform Python GUI Apps With BeeWare

2020-08-14T12:00:00+00:00

Do you want to distribute your Python applications to other users who don't have or even use Python? Maybe you're interested in seeing your Python application run on iOS or Android mobile devices. This week on the show we have Russell Keith-Magee, the founder and maintainer of the BeeWare project. Russell talks about Briefcase, a tool that converts a Python application into native installers on macOS, Windows, Linux, and mobile devices.

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Identify Invalid Python Syntax

2020-08-11T14:00:00+00:00

Python is known for its simple syntax. However, when you’re learning Python for the first time or when you’ve come to Python with a solid background in another programming language, you may run into some things that Python doesn’t allow. If you’ve ever received a SyntaxError when trying to run your Python code, then this guide can help you. Throughout this course, you’ll see common examples of invalid syntax in Python and learn how to resolve the issue.

By the end of this course, you’ll be able to:

Identify invalid syntax in Python
Make sense of SyntaxError tracebacks
Resolve invalid syntax or prevent it altogether

[ Improve Your Python With 🐍 Python Tricks 💌 – Get a short & sweet Python Trick delivered to your inbox every couple of days. >> Click here to learn more and see examples ]

Real Python

Python Booleans: Optimize Your Code With Truth Values

The Python Boolean Type#

Python Booleans as Keywords#

Python Booleans as Numbers#

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #31: Python Return Statement Best Practices and Working With the map() Function

Data Management With Python, SQLite, and SQLAlchemy

Using Flat Files for Data Storage#

Advantages of Flat Files#

Disadvantages of Flat Files#

Flat File Example#

Web Scraping With Beautiful Soup and Python

Using ggplot in Python: Visualizing Data With plotnine

Setting Up Your Environment#

Building Your First Plot With ggplot and Python#

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #30: Exploring the New Features of Python 3.9

Python Community Interview With Anthony Shaw

Cool New Features in Python 3.9

Python 3.9: Cool New Features for You to Try

Proper Time Zone Support#

Accessing Time Zones#

Investigating Time Zones#

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #29: Resolving Package Dependencies With the New Version of Pip

Python's map(): Processing Iterables Without a Loop

Coding With Functional Style in Python#

Getting Started With Python’s map()#

Understanding map()#

Using Google Login With Flask

The Python return Statement: Usage and Best Practices

Getting Started With Python Functions#

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #28: Using Pylance to Write Better Python Inside of Visual Studio Code

Python Community Interview With David Amos

Working With Linked Lists in Python

Python Practice Problems: Get Ready for Your Next Interview

Python Practice Problem 1: Sum of a Range of Integers#

Problem Description#

Problem Solution#

Python Practice Problem 2: Caesar Cipher#

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #27: Preparing for an Interview With Python Practice Problems

Numbers in Python

Integers and Floating-Point Numbers#

Integers#

Floating-Point Numbers#

Command Line Interfaces in Python

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #26: 5 Years Podcasting Python with Michael Kennedy: Growth, GIL, Async, and More

Exploring HTTPS and Cryptography in Python

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #25: Data Version Control in Python and Real Python Video Transcripts

Editing Excel Spreadsheets in Python With openpyxl

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #24: Options for Packaging Your Python Application: Wheels, Docker, and More

Django Redirects

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #23: Python Wheels and Pass by Reference in Python

Real Python Office Hours

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #22: Create Cross-Platform Python GUI Apps With BeeWare

Identify Invalid Python Syntax

Building Your First Plot With `ggplot` and Python#

Getting Started With Python’s `map()`#

Understanding `map()`#